THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF LOW LEVELS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE WORKPLACE (Jacques van Zyl PhD)

 Abstract

The importance of maintaining psychological health and safety (PH&S) in the workplace has become increasingly recognized in recent years. This article explores the detrimental effects of low levels of PH&S on both individual employees and organizations, offering an insight into the wide-ranging impacts of not prioritizing mental well-being in professional settings.

Introduction

 

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines mental health as ‘a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community’ (WHO, 2004). In the context of work, low levels of PH&S can have profound implications.

 

1. Effects on Individual Employees

 

1.1.        Decreased Job Satisfaction

 

Low PH&S levels correlate with reduced job satisfaction (Harter, Schmidt, & Keyes, 2003). Employees who feel unsupported or stressed by workplace conditions are less likely to feel positive about their roles or employer.

 

1.2.        Mental Health Disorders

 

A lack of support and increased workplace stress can lead to heightened risks for mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety (Theorell, Hammarström, Aronsson, Träskman Bendz, Grape, Hogstedt, & Hall, 2015).

 

1.3.        Burnout

 

Burnout, characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, is more prevalent in environments with low PH&S (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001).

 

1.4.        Physical Health Implications

 

Stress in the workplace can manifest in physical symptoms, including sleep disturbances, cardiovascular diseases, and a weakened immune system (Chandola, Brunner, & Marmot, 2006).

 

2.       Effects on Organizations

 

2.1.        Reduced Productivity

 

Employees facing psychological distress or burnout are more likely to have reduced productivity levels, affecting the overall output of the organization (Goetzel, Ozminkowski, Sederer, & Mark, 2002).

 

2.2.        Increased Absenteeism

 

Organizations with low PH&S tend to have higher absentee rates as employees take time off due to stress-related illnesses or mental health disorders (Hilton, Whiteford, Sheridan, Cleary, Chant, Wang, & Kessler, 2008).

 

2.3.        High Turnover Rates

 

Workplaces that don't prioritize PH&S often experience high employee turnover, resulting in increased recruitment and training costs (Hom, & Griffeth, 1995).

 

2.4.        Poor Organizational Reputation

 

In the age of transparency and employee reviews on platforms like Glassdoor, low PH&S can tarnish an organization's public image (Willness, Steel, & Lee, 2007).

 

2.5.        Legal and Financial Implications

 

Companies may face legal consequences if found negligent in maintaining PH&S standards, leading to fines or lawsuits (Leka, & Jain, 2010).

 

3.       Broader Societal Impact

 

Societies bear the burden of reduced PH&S in workplaces in the form of increased healthcare costs, reduced economic output, and broader public health concerns (Sauter, Murphy, & Hurrell, 1990).

 

Conclusion

 

Ignoring psychological health and safety in the workplace not only jeopardizes individual well-being but also threatens the very fabric of organizations and societies. It is imperative for modern businesses to recognize and act upon these challenges, ensuring that workplaces are not just places of business but also sanctuaries of well-being.

 

References

 

Chandola, T., Brunner, E., & Marmot, M. (2006). Chronic stress at work and the metabolic syndrome: prospective study. BMJ, 332(7540), 521-525. 

 

Goetzel, R. Z., Ozminkowski, R. J., Sederer, L. I., & Mark, T. L. (2002). The business case for quality mental health services: Why employers should care about the mental health and well-being of their employees. Journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 44(4), 320-330. 

 

Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Keyes, C. L. (2003). Well-being in the workplace and its relationship to business outcomes: A review of the Gallup studies. Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived, 205-224.

 

Hilton, M. F., Whiteford, H. A., Sheridan, J. S., Cleary, C. M., Chant, D. C., Wang, P. S., & Kessler, R. C. (2008). The prevalence of psychological distress in employees and associated occupational risk factors. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 50(7), 746-757. 

 

Hom, P. W., & Griffeth, R. W. (1995). Employee turnover. South-Western Publishers. 

 

Leka, S., & Jain, A. (2010). Health impact of psychosocial hazards at work: an overview. World Health Organization.

 

Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual review of psychology, 52(1), 397-422.

 

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar23 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com.

 

Sauter, S. L., Murphy, L. R., & Hurrell Jr, J. J. (1990). Prevention of work-related psychological disorders. American Psychologist, 45(10), 1146. 

 

Theorell, T., Hammarström, A., Aronsson, G., Träskman Bendz, L., Grape, T., Hogstedt, C., ... & Hall, C. (2015). A systematic review including meta-analysis of work environment and depressive symptoms. BMC public health, 15(1), 738. 

 

Willness, C. R., Steel, P., & Lee, K. (2007). A meta-analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Personnel psychology, 60(1), 127-162.

 

World Health Organization (WHO). (2004). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging Evidence, Practice. Geneva: WHO. 

 

THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN CAPITAL IN OPTIMISING THE STRUCTURAL CAPITAL OF AN ORGANISATION – J van Zyl PhD

In the vast ecosystem of organisational success, two types of intellectual assets stand out: human capital and structural capital. While structural capital embodies the knowledge, systems, and processes inherent in an organisation, human capital focuses on the talents, skills, and competencies of its workforce. This essay seeks to underscore the pivotal role of human capital in optimising an organisation's structural capital, thereby ensuring sustained competitive advantage and superior performance.

 

Before discussing the interplay between human and structural capital, herewith a brief description of each:

 

·      Human Capital: It pertains to the knowledge, skills, and abilities of employees. It's what individuals bring to an organisation, from problem-solving skills to innovative ideas, to relationship-building capabilities (Sen, Kumar, and Biswal, 2023).

·      Structural Capital: This represents the non-human storehouses of knowledge in an organisation, like databases, organisational procedures, information systems, and corporate culture (Sen et al, 2023; Van Winkelen and and McKenzie, 2009).

 

Human Capital is indeed needed to be the driver of structural capital optimisation via the following interactions (Bouzakhem, Farmanesh, Zargar, Ramadan, Baydoun, Daouk, and Mouazen, 2023; Shrivastava, Ikonen, Savolainen, and Dorjgotov, 2021):

 

·      Knowledge Management: The effectiveness of structural capital lies in its apt utilisation. Human capital, with its inherent expertise and experience, plays a pivotal role in cataloguing, updating, and leveraging the knowledge repositories to their full potential (Markić, Požega, and Crnković, 2022).

·      Cultural Ambassadors: Organisational culture, a significant component of structural capital, is not just written in manuals but is lived daily by employees. It's the human capital that brings this culture to life, ensuring that it's more than just a set of documented ideals.

·      Continuous Improvement: Structural processes and procedures require regular updates to stay relevant. The feedback loop from employees—those at the forefront of industry changes—is invaluable in refining these processes (Tseng, Wang and Yen, 2014).

·      Innovation Through Collaboration: While structural capital can house knowledge, it is the human capital that breathes life into this knowledge. The collaborative efforts of teams can lead to novel ways of leveraging existing systems, thus optimising structural assets (Tseng, Wang and Yen, 2014).

 

There are therefore specific implications for organisations in assisting with this optimisation (Sen et al, 2023; Van Winkelen et al, 2009):

 

·      Investment in Training and Development: To ensure that human capital can effectively leverage and optimise structural capital, continuous training and skill development become imperative. An employee familiar with the latest technological systems can better harness the power of organisational databases.

·      Feedback Mechanisms: Establishing robust feedback mechanisms ensures that insights from human capital are seamlessly integrated into refining structural assets.

·      Balancing Stability and Agility: While structural capital offers stability, it's the human capital that provides agility. Organisations must find a balance, allowing structures to guide operations while also giving individuals the flexibility to innovate.

·      Retention Strategies: The optimization of structural capital is a continuous journey, and retaining experienced employees, who understand the intricacies of these structures, becomes crucial. High employee turnover can lead to a disconnect between the human and structural elements of intellectual capital.

 

While structural capital forms the backbone of an organisation, human capital serves as its lifeblood. The symbiotic relationship between the two ensures that the organisation not only preserves and stores knowledge but also uses it effectively. To optimise structural capital, businesses must focus on nurturing, developing, and retaining their human assets. In the interplay between factors, such as, human capabilities, intuition and structural processes, lies the secret ingredients of organisational success.

 

REFERENCE LIST

 

Bouzakhem, N., Farmanesh, P., Zargar, P., Ramadan, M., Baydoun, H., Daouk, A., and Mouazen, A. (2023). Rebuilding the Workplace in the Post-Pandemic Age through Human Capital Development Programs: A Moderated Mediation Model.  Administrative Sciences (2076-3387). Jul2023, Vol. 13 Issue 7.

 

Mara, C.,  Govender, C., and  Makka, A. (2021).  Contribution of Human Capital Development (Hcd) to Organisational Effectiveness in the Southern African Hospitality Industry.  African Journal of Business & Economic Research. Sep2021, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p195-214.

 

Markić, M’, Požega, Ž.,  and Crnković, B. (2022). The Impact of Knowledge Management on the Economic Indicators of the Companies. South East European Journal of Economics and Business Volume 17 (2) 2022, 34-48. 

 

Ray, C., Nyberg, A., and  Maltarich, M.A. (2023).  Human Capital Resources Emergence Theory: The Role of Social Capital.  Academy of Management Review. Apr2023, Vol. 48 Issue 2, p313-335.

 

Sen, L., Kumar, A., and Biswal, S.K. (2023).  An Inferential Response of Organizational Culture upon Human Capital Development: A Justification on the Healthcare Service Sector. Folia Oeconomica Stetinensia. Jun2023, Vol. 23 Issue 1, p208-227.

 

Shrivastava, P.,  Ikonen, M., Savolainen, T., and  Dorjgotov, E. (2021).  Developing and Sustaining Trust within Human Capital during Organisational Transformation.  Nordic Journal of Business. Autumn2021, Vol. 70 Issue 3, p207-223.

 

Tseng, J-F.,  Wang, H-K, and  Yen, Y-F. (2014). Organisational innovability: exploring the impact of human and social capital in the banking industry.  Total Quality Management & Business Excellence. 2014, Vol. 25 Issue 9/10, p1088-1104.

 

van Winkelen, C., and McKenzie, J. (2019). Using Scenarios to Explore the Potential for Shifts in the Relative Priority of Human, Structural and Relational Capital in Generating Value.  Proceedings of the European Conference on Intellectual Capital. 2009, p501-508.

The Value of Human Capital in the Era of AI and Machine Learning

  

The Value of Human Capital in the Era of AI and Machine Learning

 

J van Zyl (PhD), March 2023

Introduction

 

The development of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) has the potential to transform many industries and aspects of our lives. From self-driving cars to medical diagnosis, the capabilities of machines are expanding rapidly. As these technologies continue to advance, questions arise about the value of human capital in the new economy. Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities that individuals possess, and it has long been recognized as a key driver of economic growth and prosperity. 

 

The era of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) has indeed led to a significant transformation in the way businesses operate. The integration of these technologies has enabled organizations to automate various processes, reduce costs, and improve efficiencies. However, while AI and ML are transforming the workplace, there is an ongoing debate about the impact of these technologies on human capital. Some experts argue that AI and ML will replace human workers, while others contend that they will augment their capabilities. In this paper, we explore the concept of human capital in the era of AI and ML, drawing on the existing literature to examine the value of human workers in a world where machines are increasingly capable of performing complex tasks.

 

The Value of Human Capital

 

Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities possessed by individuals that contribute to their productivity and ability to generate economic value. While AI and ML can automate certain tasks, they are unable to replicate the creativity, empathy, and critical thinking skills that are unique to humans. As such, human capital remains a crucial component of organizational success.

 

One study by the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI, 2017) estimated that while AI and ML will displace some jobs, they will also create new ones, leading to a net increase in employment. The report also found that the most significant gains would come from the complementary relationship between human workers and AI and ML systems. For example, AI and ML could be used to automate routine tasks, allowing human workers to focus on higher-value activities that require creativity, critical thinking, and emotional intelligence.

 

Another study by the World Economic Forum (WEF, 2020) found that while AI and ML would lead to a decline in some job categories, they would also create new ones. The report predicted that emerging job categories such as data analysts, AI and ML specialists, and digital marketing professionals would experience significant growth in the coming years. These jobs require specialized knowledge and skills, highlighting the value of human capital in the era of AI and ML.

 

Furthermore, the use of AI and ML in the workplace has highlighted the importance of soft skills such as communication, collaboration, and adaptability. As AI and ML continue to automate routine tasks, human workers will need to focus on activities that require a human touch. For example, customer service representatives will need to possess excellent communication skills to provide personalized support to customers.

 

The Complementarity of Human and Machine Capital

 

A growing body of research suggests that rather than displacing human workers, machines and AI can be complementary to human labour. Brynjolfsson and McAfee (2014) argue that advances in technology increase the value of human capital by making it more productive. As machines take over routine tasks, human workers are freed up to focus on more complex and creative tasks that require human judgment and decision-making. For example, AI may be able to analyze data and identify patterns, but it still requires human input to interpret the results and make decisions based on them. Similarly, while machines may be able to perform routine tasks like data entry or transcription, humans are still needed to provide context and make sense of the information.

 

The Importance of Soft Skills

 

As machines become more capable of performing technical tasks, the value of soft skills such as communication, collaboration, and problem-solving increases. A study by the World Economic Forum (2020) found that the top skills needed in the workplace in 2022 are expected to include critical thinking, creativity, and people management, all of which are difficult to automate. These skills are closely tied to human capital and are likely to become even more important as machines take on routine tasks.

 

The Need for Continuous Learning

 

The rapid pace of technological change means that workers must be able to adapt and learn new skills throughout their careers. This requires a commitment to lifelong learning and a willingness to invest in human capital. The OECD (2019) highlights the importance of upskilling and reskilling workers to keep pace with technological change. This may involve retraining workers for new roles or providing opportunities for ongoing education and development. The value of human capital in the new economy depends in part on the ability of workers to keep pace with technological change and acquire the skills needed to remain relevant.

 

Conclusion

 

In conclusion, while AI and ML will undoubtedly transform the workplace, they will not replace human workers entirely. The complementary relationship between human workers and AI and ML systems highlights the value of human capital in the era of AI and ML. As AI and ML automate routine tasks, human workers will need to focus on activities that require creativity, critical thinking, and emotional intelligence. The emergence of new job categories and the importance of soft skills highlight the ongoing need for human workers in the workplace. Therefore, organizations should continue to invest in the development of human capital to remain competitive in the era of AI and ML.

References:

 

Brynjolfsson, E., & McAfee, A. (2014). The second machine age: Work, progress, and prosperity in a time of brilliant technologies. W W Norton & Co.

 

Manyika, J., Chui, M., Miremadi, M., Bughin, J., George, K., Willmott, P., & Dewhurst, M. (2017). 

 

MGI, (2017).  A future that works: Automation, employment, and productivity. McKinsey Global Institute.

 

OECD, 2019.  Human Capital:  How what you know shapes your life.  Available at: https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264029095-en  [Accessed on 4 March 2023]

 

World Economic Forum. (2020). The future of jobs report 2020. Geneva: World Economic Forum.

Psychological Hazards in The Workplace

 Psychological Hazards in The Workplace

 Jacques van Zyl (PhD)

 

Introduction

 

The workplace is an important setting where individuals spend a significant amount of their time, interacting with colleagues, performing tasks, and fulfilling responsibilities. However, it can also be a source of psychological hazards that affect employees’ mental health and wellbeing. Psychological hazards in the workplace pose a significant risk to employee health and well-being. These hazards can have wide-ranging effects, including mental health problems, physical health problems, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Strategies to mitigate the impact of psychological hazards can be implemented at the organizational, interpersonal, task-related, and individual levels. By addressing these hazards, organizations can promote a healthy work environment and support employee health and well-being. This article will explore the psychological hazards that exist in the workplace, their impact on employee mental health, and strategies for prevention and intervention.

 

Psychological Hazards

 

Psychological hazards in the workplace are defined as aspects of work that have the potential to cause harm to employees' mental health and wellbeing, including stress, burnout, bullying, and harassment (Leka, Jain Iavicoli & Di Tecco, 2015). They refer to factors in the work environment that can negatively impact the mental health and well-being of employees. These hazards can be grouped into four main categories: organizational factors, interpersonal factors, task-related factors, and individual factors (Nielsen, Randall, & Albertsen, 2010; Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). Organizational factors include job demands, work overload, lack of control over work, role ambiguity, and organizational change. Interpersonal factors refer to issues related to workplace relationships, such as conflicts with colleagues, bullying, and harassment. Task-related factors include work with high physical demands, work that is monotonous, and work that requires high levels of attention. Finally, individual factors include pre-existing mental health conditions, coping styles, and personality traits (WHO, 2017).

 

 

Effects of Psychological Hazards

 

The effects of psychological hazards in the workplace can be wide-ranging and significant. High levels of job strain have been linked to increased risks of mental health problems, including depression, anxiety, and burnout (Van der Doef & Maes, 1999). Workplace bullying and harassment can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a range of physical health problems, such as cardiovascular disease and musculoskeletal disorders (Niedhammer, Chastang, David, Kelleher & Theorell, 2013). Exposure to workplace violence can lead to acute and chronic stress reactions, anxiety, and depression (WHO, 2017).

 

Types of Psychological Hazards

 

Several factors can contribute to psychological hazards in the workplace. 

 

Job demands

 

These refer to the workload and time pressures associated with the job. High levels of job demands can lead to stress and burnout, which can have a negative impact on mental and physical health. Job control refers to the extent to which individuals have control over their work and can make decisions about how to carry out their tasks. Lack of job control can lead to feelings of helplessness and a lack of autonomy, which can increase stress and burnout.

 

Interpersonal relationships

 

These relationships at work can also contribute to psychological hazards. Bullying, harassment, and discrimination can all contribute to a toxic work environment, leading to decreased job satisfaction and increased stress. An organizational culture refers to the norms, values, and beliefs of an organization. A positive organizational culture can lead to increased job satisfaction and motivation, while a negative culture can contribute to stress and burnout (Samuel, 2015).

 

Stress

 

Stress is a common psychological hazard in the workplace and is defined as an individual’s response to a situation where the demands of the job exceed their ability to cope (Leka, Jain & Lerouge, 2017). Workplace stress can arise from a variety of factors, including heavy workloads, tight deadlines, lack of control over work, and poor relationships with colleagues and supervisors. The impact of workplace stress on employee mental health is significant, with research showing that stress is associated with increased risk of anxiety, depression, and burnout (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013).

 

Burnout

 

Burnout is another psychological hazard that arises from prolonged exposure to workplace stress. Burnout is characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach, Schaufel & Leiter, 2001). Burnout can be caused by a variety of workplace factors, including high workload, lack of control over work, and poor relationships with colleagues and supervisors. The impact of burnout on employee mental health is significant, with research showing that burnout is associated with increased risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation (Shanafelt, Hasan, Dyrbye, Sinsky, Satele, Sloan & West, 2015).

 

Bullying and Harassment

 

Bullying and harassment are two additional psychological hazards that exist in the workplace. Bullying is defined as repeated aggressive behavior intended to intimidate or harm another person, while harassment is unwanted and unwelcome conduct that has the purpose or effect of violating a person's dignity or creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating, or offensive environment (Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf & Cooper, 2011). The impact of bullying and harassment on employee mental health is significant, with research showing that these behaviors are associated with increased risk of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Einarsen et al., 2011).

 

Prevention and Intervention

 

Preventing and managing psychological hazards in the workplace requires a multifaceted approach that involves employers, employees, and other stakeholders. Employers can take steps to reduce workplace stress and prevent burnout by providing training and support for employees, ensuring workload is reasonable and manageable, creating a positive work environment that values employee wellbeing, and ensuring work-life balance is maintained (Fletcher et al., 2013). Employers can also establish clear policies and procedures for addressing bullying and harassment, and provide training and education for all employees on these issues (Einarsen et al., 2011).

 

 

Interpersonal interventions, such as conflict resolution and mediation, can help to address workplace bullying and harassment. Task-related interventions, such as job redesign and ergonomic modifications, can reduce physical demands and monotony. Finally, individual interventions, such as stress management and resilience training, can help employees to develop coping skills and reduce the impact of psychological hazards on their mental health and well-being (WHO, 2010).

 

Employees can also take steps to protect their mental health in the workplace. This can include seeking support from colleagues or supervisors, setting clear boundaries between work and personal life, and taking regular breaks and practicing self-care (Leka et al., 2015). Employees can also report incidents of bullying or harassment to their employer or a third-party reporting mechanism.

 

Conclusion

 

Psychological hazards in the workplace pose a significant risk to employee mental health and wellbeing. Stress, burnout, bullying, and harassment are all potential hazards that require attention and intervention to prevent harm. Employers, employees, and other stakeholders all have a role to play in creating a positive work environment that supports employee mental health and wellbeing. By working together, it is possible to reduce the prevalence and impact of psychological hazards in the workplace.

 

 References

 

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands-resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 273-285.

 

Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. L. (2011). The Concept of Bullying and Harassment at Work: The European Tradition. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and Harassment in the Workplace: Developments in Theory, Research, and Practice (2nd Ed., pp. 3-39).

 

Fletcher, D., & Sarkar, M. (2013). Psychological resilience: A review and critique of definitions, concepts, and theory. European Psychologist, 18(1), 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000124

 

Kivimäki, M., Singh-Manoux, A., Virtanen, M., Batty, G. D., Ferrie, J. E., Tabak, A. G., ... & Shipley, M. J. (2018). Common mental disorder and obesity: insight from four repeat measures over 19 years: prospective Whitehall II cohort study. BMJ, 361, k2251.

 

Leka, S., Jain, A., Iavicoli, S., and Di Tecco, C. (2015).  An Evaluation of the Policy Context on Psychosocial Risks and Mental Health in the Workplace in the European Union: Achievements, Challenges, and the Future.  Volume 2015 | Article ID 213089 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/213089

 

Leka, S., Jain, A., and Lerouge, L. (2017). Work-Related Psychosocial Risks: Key Definitions and an Overview of the Policy Context in Europe. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-63065-6_1.

 

Maslach, C., Schaufel, W.B., and Leiter, M. (2001). Job Burnout. Annual Review of Psychology 52:397-422.

 

Niedhammer, I., Chastang, J. F., David, S., Kelleher, C., & Theorell, T. (2013). The contribution of occupational factors to social inequalities in health: Findings from the national French SUMER survey. Social Science & Medicine, 81, 139-147.

 

Nielsen, K., Randall, R., & Albertsen, K. (2010). Participants' appraisals of process issues and the effects of stress management interventions. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(1), 19-37.

 

 

Samuel, O.B. (2015). The Effects of Organisational Culture and Stress on Organisational Employee.  Management 2015;  5(3): 96-106.

Shanafelt, T.D., Hasan, O., Dyrbye, L.N., Sinsky, C., Satele, D., Sloan, J., and West, C.P. (2015). Changes in Burnout and Satisfaction With Work-Life Balance in Physicians and the General US Working Population Between 2011 and 2014.  Mayo Clin Proc, 2015 Dec;90(12):1600-13.

 

Van der Doef, M., and  Maes, S. (1999). The job demand-control (-support) model and psychological well-being: A review of 20 years of empirical research. Work & Stress, 13(2), 87-114.

World Health Organization. (2017). Mental health in the workplace. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/campaigns/world-health-day/world-health-day-2017/event-2017/background- information-mental-health-workplace/en/